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学习英语句法
2007-11-13
  
第三章 句 法
句子的组成部分
   本部分研究的是句子的各个组成部分以及它们的排列顺序等规则。
   句子的主要组成部分有:主语、谓语、宾语、补语、表语、定语、状语和同位语等。
   主语:句子所叙述的主体。可担任主语的有:名词、代词、数词、动名词、不定式、短语以及主语从句(用一个分句作主语)
   谓语:陈述主语的动作、状态和性质等。可担任谓语的有:动词、动词短语。
   宾语:动作的承受者,位于及物动词后。可担任宾语的有:名词、代词、数词、不定式、动名词、短语以及宾语从句(用一个分句作宾语)
   补语:补充宾语,使句子意义完整。可担任补语的有:名词、形容词、介词短语、不定式、分词等。(被动语态时宾语成为主语,宾语补语相应成为主语补语。)
   表语:描述主语的特征、身份、状态等,位于系动词后。可担任表语的有:名词、代词、数词、形容词、副词、不定式、动名词、分词、短语以及表语从句(用一个句子作表语)
   定语:修饰名词或代词,说明其特性。可担任定语的有:名词、代词、数词、形容词、副词、不定式、动名词、分词、短语以及定语从句(用一个句子作定语)
   状语:修饰动词、形容词、副词或全句。可担任状语的有:名词、副词、不定式、分词、短语以及状语从句(用一个句子作状语)
  同位语:用于解释或说明句子的某一成分。可担任同位语的有:名词、代词、数词、不定式以及同位语从句(用一个句子作同位语)
一、基本句型
   英语的基本句型有五种,即:
1 主语 + 谓语动词。 SV
   例如: The two-man spaceship took off this morning.
2 主语 + 谓语动词 + 宾语。 SVO
   例如: The drilling machine is making a hole.
The young should help the old. 年轻人应当帮助老年人。
We finished doing our homework. 我们做完作业了。
3 主语 + 连系动词 + 表语。 SVC
   例如: The answer is off the point.
Her job is typing. 她的工作是打字。
That is what I really want. 那才是我真正想要的。
4 主语 + 谓语动词 + 间接宾语 + 直接宾语。 SVO (间) O (直)(双宾语)
   例如: The new approach has saved us a great deal of time.
He bought his girlfriend a birthday gift. 他给他的女朋友买了生日礼物。
5 主语 + 谓语动词 + 宾语 + 宾语补足语。 SVOC (复合宾语)
   例如: We like our guests to feel at home.
Why did he force you to leave? 为什么他强迫你离开?
He had his car repaired. 他的车修好了。
   熟悉以上几种基本句型可以增强分析千变万化句型的能力。
二、句子分类
1 .以用途分类的句子
   根据句子的功能或使用目的,简单句可分四类:陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句。
1 )陈述句
   陈述句用来陈述一件事或表达一种看法。陈述句可以是肯定句,也可以是否定句。
   例如: They are waiting for their passports.
The tourists had no way to reach that scenic spot.
2 )疑问句
   疑问句有四种类型:一般疑问句,特殊疑问句,选择疑问句和反意疑问句。
   例如:
Do you find it difficult to learn how to drive? (一般疑问句)
Who should be responsible for the decrease in production this year? (特殊疑问句)
Does your son work in the sales department or in accounting department? (选择疑问句)
Mr. Black washed his car himself yesterday, didn't he? (反意疑问句)
3 )祈使句
   祈使句为表示请求、命令的句子。在祈使句中,主语通常被省略。祈使句结构中的谓语动词一律使用动词原形,否定结构则在肯定结构前加 do not ( don't )。
   例如: Please call me a taxi.
Don't be afraid of making mistakes.
4 )感叹句
   表示喜、怒、哀、乐等强烈感情的句子叫感叹句。感叹句由 how 或 what 等感叹词加被强调的部分和陈述句的其他部分构成。
   例如: How hard he works!
What an interesting role she played!
2. 以结构分类的句子
1 )简单句
   只有一个主语(或并列主语)和一个谓语动词(或并列谓语动词)的句子为简单句。
   例如: Successful learners are good at the art of listening.
   成功者都善于倾听艺术。
Voices and music have added to color and pictures to catch the ear as well as the eye.
   彩色画面配上道白和音乐,既好听又好看。
2 )并列句及常用连词
   两个或两个以上的简单句用等立连词(或用分号、冒号、逗号等)连在一起构成的句子叫并列句。
   常用的等立连词有: and, so, not only…but also, neither…nor, or, otherwise, either…or, but, yet, still, however, while, whereas, for 。
   例如: She is short and fat whereas her husband is tall and thin.
While 而、然而
I've just had some good news: I've been offered a well-paid job in a small firm.
   我刚得到好消息:我在一个小公司得到了一份收入颇丰的工作。
3 )复合句
   由一个主句和一个或一个以上的从句所构成的句子结构叫复合句,也叫主从复合句。
   从句由关联词引导,将从句与主句联系在一起。
   依据在复合句中的作用,从句可分为:主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句、定语从句和状语从句。
复合句
名词从句: 主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句
   构成名词从句的常用关联词有下列三类:
· 主从连词, that, whether, if 等;
· 连接代词, who, whom, whose, what, which 等;
· 连接副词, when, where, why, how 等。
· 主语从句。 句型:主语从句 + 谓语 + 其他成分
   当主语从句较长时,可用形式主语 It 代替从句位置,将从句后置。
   例如: Who will chair the meeting is of great interest to many of them.
   很多人对谁会主持这次会议十分感兴趣。(关联词 who 引导主语从句)
It is unknown what he did on earth.
   他究竟做了什么无人知道。(关联词 what 引导实际主语从句)
That the earth is round is known to all. (关联词 that 引导主语从句)
It's a pity ( that ) you didn't come to the party. (关联词 that 引导主语从句)
   注:以 that 引导的主语从句置于句首时, that 无具体意义,但不能省略,后置时则可以省略。
· 宾语从句。 句型:谓语(或及物动词) + 宾语从句 + 其他成分
   例如: The purpose of a test is to indicate what students have learned about the subject.
   测试的目的是要了解学生对此门课程的学习情况。(关联词 what 引导宾语从句)
Could you tell me where they live? (关联词 where 引导宾语从句)
· 表语从句。 句型:主语 + 谓语(系动词) + 表语从句 + 其他成分
   例如: The reason for their achievements is that they can learn from their mistakes.
   他们取得成就的原因是他们能够从错误中吸取教训。(关联词 that 引导表语从句)
The problem is how you got my mobile phone number. (关联词 how 引导表语从句)
· 同位语从句。
   例如: The news that the mascot for the 2008 Olympics has been decided is very exciting.
2008 年奥运会吉祥物已经确定的消息令人异常振奋。(关联词 that 引导同位语从句)
They couldn't accept the fact that you failed the exam.
   他们不能接受你没有通过考试这件事。(关联词 that 引导同位语从句)
※ whether 和 if 引导的名词从句之间区别:
1 ) whether 后可直接跟 or not, if 则不能。
   例如: I wondered whether or not he was serious. 我想知道他是否是认真的。
2 )介词后的宾语从句应使用 whether 引导,不能用 if 引导。
   例如: It depends on whether he agrees or not. 这取决于他是否同意。
3 ) whether 可引导主语从句和表语从句, if 则不能。
   例如: Whether he will change his job has not been decided yet.
   他是否会换工作还没有确定下来。
The question is whether you like market economy.
   问题在于你是否喜欢市场经济。
定语从句:
· 定语从句。 在句中用作定语的从句称为定语从句,修饰名词或代词。
   定语从句通常位于它所修饰的名词或代词之后,这种名词或代词称为先行词。
   例如: Attributive clause is the clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun.
modifies→modify 修饰
Most adults who are learning English often meet with more difficulty than young men do.
   成人学习英语所遇到的困难要比年轻人多。(关联词 who 引导定语从语)
adults 成年人
   引导定语从句的常用关联词有下列两类:关系代词和关系副词
   关系代词: that which who whom whose as
   关系副词: when where why
   关系代词在定语从句中可用作主语、宾语、表语、介词宾语和定语等;
   关系代词在定语从句中用作主语时,从句谓语动词的人称和数要与先行词保持一致。
   关系副词在定语从句中用作状语。
   关系副词可代替的先行词是表示时间、地点或理由的名词。
由关系代词 who , whom , whose , which , that 引导的定语从句
1 ) who 代替人,在从句中作主语。
A man who does not try to learn from others cannot hope to achieve much.
   一个不向别人学习的人是不能指望有多大成就的。
2 ) whom 代替人,在从句中作宾语,通常可省略。
The engineers whom we met yesterday have worked out a new automatic device.
   我们昨天碰到的那些工程师设计出了一种新的自动化装置。
3 ) whose 代替人或物,在从句中作定语。
Madame Curie is a great scientist whose name is known all over the world.
居里 夫人是一位全世界闻名的伟大科学家。(指人)
They live in the house whose door and windows are all broken.
   他们所居住的房子门窗都坏了。(指物)
4 ) which 代替物,在从句中作主语、宾语或介词宾语。作宾语时,通常可省略。
A direct current is a current which flows in one direction only.
   直流电是沿着一个方向流动的电流。
The music to which we listened last night was written by my father.
   我们昨晚听的那首曲子是我父亲写的。
5 ) that 代替人或物,在从句中作主语或宾语,但不能作介词宾语。作宾语时通常可省略。
He is the only one among us that knows English. 他是我们当中唯一懂英语的人。(指人)
The car that almost crashed into me belonged to Brown.
   差点撞上我的那辆车是布朗先生的。(指物)
She talked about the professors and colleges that she had visited.
   她谈到了她所访问过的教授和大学。(指人和物)
注意:关系代词 that 和 which 的区别如下:
1 )先行词为 all , anything , something , nothing , everything , little , much 等不定代词时,只能用 that .
Matter is anything that has weight and takes up space.
   任何具有重量并占有空间的东西都是物质。
2 )先行词前有最高级形容词以及 first , last , every , some , any , very , next , only 等修饰词时,只能用 that 。
The first thing that they should do is to work out their plan.
   他们该做的第一件事就是制定个计划。
3 ) which 引导的定语从句前可使用逗号,表示这是非限定性定语从句; that 从句则不能。
His speech, which bored everyone , went on and on.
   他的演讲不断持续着,令每一个人都心烦。
I never met Judy again, which was a pity.
   我再也没见到朱迪,十分遗憾。
由关系副词 when , where , why 所引导的定语从句
1 ) when 作状语,其先行词多为表示时间概念的名词。
We can never forget the day when Hong Kong returned to our homeland.
   我们永远不会忘记香港回归祖国的那一天。
2 ) where 作状语,其先行词多为表示地点概念的名词。
The building where you used to live has been pulled down.
   你过去曾住过的那栋大厦已经被拆除了。
3 ) why 作状语,其先行词多为表示原因概念的名词。
We know the reason why he was very angry.
限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句
1 )限制性定语从句
   通常限制性定语从句与先行词关系密切,因此不能缺少,否则会影响全句的意义;从句前不用逗号。
You can't answer the question which he put forward.
   你们回答不了他所提出的问题。
   在限定性的定义从句中,作宾语的 who, whom, which, that 等可以省略。
   例如: He is a great writer ( whom, who ) we shall remember forever.
2 )非限制性定语从句
   非限制性定语从句与先行词只是一种松散的修饰关系,一般只是补充其意思,即使
   省略了也不会影响主句意义的完整性;从句前常用逗号分开,从句中的关系代词不能省略。
   从句可以单独翻译。
Helen was much kinder to her youngest child than she was to the others, which , of course, made others jealous.
   海伦对最小的孩子比对别的孩子体贴得多,这当然使得别的孩子妒忌。
· 状语从句 用分句作主句的状语,该句子称为状语从句。
   它在句中的位置比较灵活,可以放在主句之前或之后,偶尔也可插在主句之中。
   状语从句由从属连词引导,不同的连词引出不同的状语从句。
   例如: We often move our heads from side to side when we want to say "no".
   当我们想说 " 不 " 的时候,通常会摇摇头。(关联词 when 引导状语从句)
状语从句的分类及形式
用法 :常用连词 :例句 1
表示时间
when (当 … 时候)
while (当 … 时候)
as (当 … 时候)
till ( until )(一直到 … 为止)
whenever (无论何时)
since (自从 … 以来)
after ( … 之后)
before ( … 之前)
by the time that (到了 … 时候 … )
not…long before ( … 不久,就 … )
She began to watch TV after she had finished her homework.
她做完作业后,才开始看电视。
When it rains , I usually go to school by bus.
天下雨时,我通常乘公共汽车上学。
Don't go before I come back.
别在我回来之前走掉。
Let's wait until ( till ) the rain stops.
我们等到雨停了再说。
Hardly / scarcely / barely…when ( before ) / no sooner…than
(一 … 就)
No sooner had they reached the top of the hill than they all sat down to rest.
他们刚一到山顶就都坐下来休息。
as soon as / directly ( when ) /immediately ( when/ after ) /the
moment ( that ) / the instant ( that )
/the minute ( that )(一 … 就)
every time (每次)
once (一旦)
The moment you hear the news , give me a call.
你一听到消息就给我打电话。
Every time she came to the city she would visit her old friends.
她每次来到城里都要去看看她那些老朋友。
2
表示地点
where (在 … 地方)
whenever (无论哪里)
everywhere ( that )(无论什么地方)
anywhere ( that )(无论 … 地方)
“I'm finding oil for my motherland. Where there is oil , my home is there.”
“ 我为祖国献(找)石油,哪里有石油,哪里就是我的家。 ”
Wherever I am , I will be thinking of you.
无论我在哪里,我都会想着你。
3
表示条件
if (如果,假如)
unless (除非,如果不)
as ( so ) long as (只要)
in case (假如,一旦)
if only (只要)
on condition that (只要,假如)
suppose ( that ) / supposing ( that ) /provided ( that ) / providing ( that )(假如)
If you are going to visit any foreign country , you will need a passport.
如果你要去国外旅游,你需要一本护照。
You can't learn English well unless you work hard.
除非你努力学习,否则是学不好英语的。
4
表示原因
because (因为)
since (因为,既然)
as (因为)
now that (既然)
for (因为,既然)
considering (既然)
seeing that (鉴于)
in that (因为)
As they live in the countryside , they can enjoy fresh air.
因为他们住在乡下,便可享受新鲜的空气。
Since he is busy, I won't trouble him.
既然他很忙,我就不麻烦他了。
Seeing that you are inexperienced. You are not fit for the work.
鉴于你没有经验,你不适合干这份工作。
5
表示结果
so that (因而,因此,所以,结果)
so…that (这样 … 以致,因而,因此)
such…that (这样 … 以致,如此 … 以致)
that (因而,因此)
You went early , so that you finished your on time.
你们去得早,因此按时完成工作。
The chief executive gave us such an excellent lecture that we'll never forget it.
总裁给我们做了一次非常精彩的演讲,我们永远也不会忘记。
6
表示比较
the…the… (越 … 越,愈 … 愈 … )
than (比 … )
as…as… (和 … 一样,像 … 一样)
not so ( as ) …as (不及 … ,不如 … ,不像)
The greater the degree of industrialization in a country , the higher the standard of living.
一个国家工业化程度愈高,生活水平则愈高。
This work is more difficult than we thought.
这项工作比我们想的还要艰巨。
7
表示
方式
as (像,照,如)
just as…so (正像,正如,犹如)
as if ( as though )(好像,仿佛,犹如,像 … 一样)
according as (依照)
Air is to man as water is to fish.
空气之于人,犹水之于鱼。
I remember the whole thing as if it happened yesterday.
整个事情我都记得,就像昨天发生的一样。
8
表示目的
1. 表示 “ 肯定目的 ”
that ( so that , in order that ) …may ( might )(为了 … ,以便 … )
They should do their utmost in order that they may be able to over-fulfill the task.
为了超额完成任务,他们应该全力以赴。
2. 表示 “ 否定目的 ”
lest ( for fear that , in case that ) …
should (以免,惟恐,为了不)
Batteries must be kept in dry places lest electricity should leak away.
电池应放在干燥的地方,以免漏电。
9
表示让步
although ( though )(虽然)
as (尽管,虽然)
even if ( even though )(即使)
however (尽管)
whatever (不管)
no matter ( how , what , where , when )(不管理怎样,什么,哪里,何时)
whether…or (不管)
We need to check the information , though we think it is correct.
我们需要核对这条信息,尽管我们相信它是正确的。
However hard she tried , she never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
尽管她做出了努力,但她似乎从来未能够令人满意地完成任务。
注意:
1 )由 when,as,while 引导,表示时间的状语从句用法区别
when 引导的状语从句
   主句与从句动作可以同时发生,也可以不同时。
  例如: When I pressed the button, the radio stopped.
when 同 while 和 as 一样,可表示延续性动作,但当 when 表示非延续性动作时, when 不能用 as 或 while 代替。
   例如: When they arrived, they were very tired.
as 引导的状语从句
as 主句与从句动作往往同时发生,可译为 " 一边 …… 一边 " 。
   例如: She sang as she worked.
while 引导的状语从句
while 主句与从句动作同时发生,后一动作发生在 while 之内。
   例如: While you were away, two friends came to see you.
2 ) until , till 的用法区别
until 用于强调时间的强调句型:
It is (was) not until … that " 直到 … 才 " ,此时不可以用 till 代替。
It was not until yesterday that I got your letter.
   直到昨天,我才收到你的来信。
until 可置于句首, till 一般放在后面: Until yesterday I got your letter.
   从句在主句之后, till 和 until 二者皆可用。
I waited until (till) he came back.
I didn't leave until (till) he came back.
3 )主句和从句不能同时使用连接词。
   例如:
Though it was getting dark, he still went on working. (正)
It was getting dark, but he still went on working. (正)
Though it was getting dark, but he still went on working. (误)
Because she overslept, she missed the bus. (正)
She overslept, so she missed the bus. (正)
Because she overslept, so she missed the bus. (误)
[ 典型题解 ]
[ 例 1]
Although it's raining, are still working in the fields.
A.they 。B.but they 。C.and they 。D.so they
[ 解析 ] 在让步状语从句中, although 和 but 不能出现在同一个句子中, although 也不能和 so/and 连用。
   故选 A 。
[ 例 2]
Is this village you once stayed?
This village is where you once stayed. (陈述句)
A.the one 。B.where 。C.which 。D.that
[ 解析 ] where 引导一个表语从句。此句中 where you once stayed 不是定语从句,因为,如果去掉 where you once stayed , 只剩下 is this village 不成句子。但在下句中情况就不一样,即: Is the village where you once lived quite far from here? 此句中 where 引导的从句为定语从句。
   故选 B 。
3. 其他句型:强调句、倒装句、省略句和反意疑问句
1 )强调句
   如果要强调句中的某一部分,可以把这一部分放到单独的分句中,这样处理的句子称为强调句,或分裂句。
   强调句是用来以强调的形式表达某种意愿和情感。构成强调句的方式如下:
It 强调句 :
   以 it 作引导词,形式为 It is (was) + 被强调部分 +that (who) + 句子的其他部分。
   被强调的部分通常为主语、宾语和状语,不可用于强调其他句子成分。
   译成汉语时,被强调部分常用 " 是 " , " 正是 " , " 就是 " 等词来表示强调的含义。
   以句子 Anne had a severe heart attack last night (安妮昨晚得了严重的心脏病)为例,可以用三种不同的强调句式,分别强调句中的不同部分。即:主语,宾语和状语:
It was Anne that (who) had a severe heart attack last night. ( 强调主语 )
   昨晚犯严重心脏病的是安妮。
It was a severe heart attack that Anne had last night. ( 强调宾语 )
   安妮昨晚犯的是严重的心脏病。
It was last night that Anne had a severe heart attack. ( 强调状语 )
   安妮是昨晚犯的严重的心脏病。
It is (was) not until …… that … 强调时间状语
It was not until yesterday that we got your letter. 直到昨天我才收到你的信。
   助动词 Do 强调谓语动词
   表现形式: do/does/did + 动词原形
She loves green color. She does love green color. 她就是喜欢绿色。
He taught himself English. He did teach himself English. 他自学的英语。
   用倒装句也可以表示强调。
2 )倒装句
   在英语句子里,通常主语在谓语动词之前,这样的语序称为自然语序,反之,如果谓语动词的一部分或全部放在主语的前面,这样的语序便被称为倒装语序。
   倒装语序的句子称为倒装句。
   例如:自然语序: The boy rushed out. 那男孩冲了出去。
   倒装语序: Out rushed the boy. 那男孩冲了出去。
   自然语序: We can lose our weight in this way only. 我们只能用这种方法减肥。
   倒装语序: Only in this way can we lose our weight. 我们只能用这种方法减肥。
倒装语序与下列情况有关:
· 下列词和词组放在句首作状语时常用倒装语序(通常这些词或词组表示否定或基本否定的意思)。它们是: never, scarcely, hardly, rarely, little, nowhere, no sooner…than, not only …but also…,
in no case, in no way, on no account, at no time, under no circumstances.
not only…but also… 不但 … 而且 …
   例如: Never before has anyone applied such principles to practice.
   至今还从未有人把这些原则付诸于实践。
Never have I read such an interesting book.
   我从来还没有读过一本这样有意思的书。
·there be 句型和大多数的疑问句都是倒装句。
There be+ 主语
   例如: There are some books on the table.
·here, there, then, thus 等副词放在句首时、谓语动词为 come, be, exist, follow 等不及物动词时,句子一般都为全部倒装。
   例如: Here is a book for you.
Here comes the bus.
· 句首为 so, nor, neither 等副词时、表明前句说明的情况也适用于本句时,句子为倒装句。例如: Richard can speak Japanese. So can his sister.
He doesn't like music. Nor / neither do I.
· 在虚拟语气中,非真实条件从句中的连词省略时,句子为倒装句。这时,倒装到主语前的是助动词 had, should 和动词 were 。
   例如: Had I left a little earlier, I wouldn't have missed the train.
   如果我早点儿离开,我就不会误了火车了。
Were I there, I would be able to help them, 要是我在那儿,我会帮助他们的。
·"only"+ 状语放在句首时,句子的主、谓语需要倒装,
   例如: Only this morning did I hear the sad news. 我今天早上才听到这个不幸的消息。
Only then did the doctor realize that his patient needed a surgery.
   直到那时,医生才意识到他的病人需要做外科手术。
· 在 hardly…when 和 no sooner….than 以及 not until 的句型中,由于否定词或否定词组放在句首,主句部分中的主、谓语要倒装。
   例如: No sooner had he got well than he left the hospital. 他病刚好,就出院了。
· 在 so….that 结构中,如果 so 在句首,也用倒装。
   例如: So easy is the task that a boy can do it 这项任务很容易,小孩子也能做。
So fast does light travel that it is difficult for us to imagine its speed.
   光传播如此之快,以致我们难以想象它的速度。
· 为了句子平衡的需要,避免头重脚轻(主语过长现象)而倒装
   例如: Gone are the days when we were young and happy.
The days when we were young and happy are gone.
the days 主语
   我们年轻和欢乐的那些日子已经过去了。
[ 典型题解 ]
[ 例 1]
Little about his own safety though he was in great danger himself.
A.does he care 。B.did he care 。C.he care 。D.he cares
[ 解析 ]little 放在句首,要求主、谓倒装。 C , D 不是倒装结构。 A 项的时态与从句中的 was 不一致。因此,选 B
[ 答案 ]B
[ 例 2]
Not until I began to work how much time I had wasted.
A.didn't realize 。B.did I realize 。C.I didn't realize 。D.I realized
[ 解析 ] 此题考查 not until 的倒装句型,即主句的谓语部分用 " 助动词 + 主语 + 动词原形 " 这一结构。
[ 答案 ]B
3 )省略句
   省略句有下列几种情况:
· 省略主语。例如: Beg your pardon. Sound nice to me. Looks like rain.
· 省略谓语或谓语的一部分。例如: (Is there) Anything you want? (Are) you hungry?
· 省略宾语。例如: Which of them is better? It's hard to tell (it).
· 省略主语和谓语。例如: Are they to paint it green or red? (They are to paint it) Red.
· 省略不定式。例如: He didn't come, but we had invited him to (come).
· 省略冠词。例如: (The) Trouble is that we have not enough hands to help them.
· 简单句中的省略。例如: Will you join us? I should love to (join you).
· 复合句中的省略。例如: Are you determined to go?
(I am determined to go) Unless my boss does not approve of it.
· 并列句中的省略。例如: The economy of this country ranks first, and that country, second.
4 )反意疑问句
· 反意疑问句由两部分构成:陈述句 + 附加问句。一般的规则是:陈述句如果是肯定结构,疑问句部分必须要用否定结构;陈述部分若是否定结构,疑问部分必须是肯定结构。简单表述为:前肯定,后否定;前否定,后肯定。
· 当陈述句的主语是: everyone, everybody, somebody 等词时,附加问句的主语常用 they;
   当陈述句的主语是 everything, something, nothing 等词时,附加疑问句的主语需用单数 it.
   例如: Nothing can prevent this disease from spreading, ?
A.can they 。B.can that 。C.can't it 。D.can it
[ 解析 ] 此题考查不定代词 nothing 作主语的用法,附加问句的主语用 it.
[ 答案 ] D
· 当陈述句为 there be 句型时,附加问句用其否定的疑问句式。
   例如: There is something wrong with your cell phone, isn't there?
( 注意:附加问句不用 isn't it 因为陈述句是存在句型 )
·have 当 " 有 " 讲时,是实义动词。在美式英语中,附加问句用助动词 do/does/did;
   在英国英语中,直接用 have/has.
   例如: Am.E You have a book, don't you ?
Br.E You have a book, haven't you?
·have 作 " 有 " 以外解释时,附加问句要用助动词 do / does / did.
   例如: He had to finish the work yesterday, ?
A.hadn't 。B.had he 。C.didn't he 。D.did he
   答案 C
·Iet's 引起的祈使句,附加问句为 shall we?
Let me 或 let us 等引起的祈使句,附加问句用 will you? 或 won't you?
   例如: Let's have a try, shall we?
will not 肯定
won't 否定
Let me go, will you? 或 won't you?
Have a little more tea, will you?
Open the window, won't you?
· 在陈述句中,有 must not 表示 " 禁止 " 时,附加疑问句除用 must 外,也可用 may 。
   例如: I must not finish the job within two days, must I ( may I ) ?
· 在陈述句中,有 few, little, nowhere, hardly, seldom 等含有否定意义的词时,附加问句要用肯定式。
· 在陈述句中,有 had better, would rather 等时,附加问句要用其第一个助动词的否定式。
   例如: You'd better stay here, hadn't you?
· 陈述句部分谓语 wish, 附加问句要用 may.
   例如: I wish to inform him of the bad news now, may I?
I wish to go with you, may I?
· 反意问句的回答
   例如: You helped him with math, didn't you?
   问:你帮他数学了,是不是 ?
   答: Yes, I did.  是的,我帮了。(肯定句)
No, I didn't  不是的,我没有。(否定句)
You have no money, have you?
   问:你没有钱了,是吗 ?
   答: No, I haven't. 是的,我没钱了。
Yes, I have a little. 不,我有一点儿。
   这里要注意翻译时与中文思维的差异。
4. 直接引语和间接引语
   定义:说话人在转述他人所讲的话时,可以完全一字不漏地加以引用,这时,被引用的话在语法上叫做直接引语。说话人用自己的话转述别人所讲的话时,可对原话进行变动,所导出的句子在语法上叫做间接引语。
   例如:
John said, "I'm going to London with my father." (直接引语)
John said that he was going to London with his father. (间接引语)
直接引语、间接引语的转换有下列几种情况:
· 陈述句变为以 that 引导的宾语从句。
   例如:
He said, "I'm very busy."→
He said that he was very busy.
· 一般疑问句变成以 if (whether) 引导的宾语从句。
   例如:
He said, "Have you all understood this passage?"→
He asked the class if they had all understood that passage.
· 特殊疑问句变为由 who, what, where 等疑问词引导的宾语从句。
   例如:
He said, "where are you going, Mr. Smith?"→
He asked Mr. Smith where he was going.
· 祈使句变为动词不定式,作 ask, tell 等动词的宾语补足语。表示命令时常用 tell, order 等;表示请求时常用 ask, beg 等动词,原句中的 don't 应变为 not.
   例如:
The manager said to the clerk, "Be polite to all the clients." →
The manager told the clerk to be polite to all the clients.
The mother said to Tom, "Don't leave the door open." →
The mother told Tom not to leave the door open.
· 如主句谓语动词为各种现在时或一般将来时,间接引语中的动词仍保持直接引语的原来时态。
   例如:
He says, "I am very busy reading the book."
He says that he is very busy reading the book.
· 如主句谓语动词为过去时,间接引语中的动词应发生如下变化:
   一般现在时变为一般过去时:
   现在进行时变为过去进行时:
   一般将来时变为过去将来时:
   现在完成时变为过去完成时:
   一般过去时变为过去完成时:
   过去完成时不变,仍为过去完成时。
· 在直接引语转换成间接引语时,代词等一般也应做出相应的变化,
   例如: this → that these → those
now → then today → that day
this week → that week yesterday → the day before
last week → the week before
three days ago → three days before
tomorrow → the next day
next week → the (next)following week
here →there come →go
   主谓一致复习要点
   在英语中,主谓一致涉及如下三项原则:语法一致的原则、意义一致的原则和就近的原则。
   语法一致的原则是主语与谓语动词在语法形式上的一致。
   意义一致的原则是指要根据主语表示的意义而不是主语的语法形式来决定谓语的形式。
   就近的原则,谓语动词的单复数取决于最靠近它的词语。
   例如:
Either you or he was in the wrong. 要么你错了,要么他错了。
Neither she nor I am wet. 她和我都没有被淋湿。
   上述三条原则的具体应用比较复杂,应注意下列几点:
A. 谓语动词用单数的情况
1. 不定式、动名词或名词性结构从句作主语时,谓语动词用单数。
2. 事件、国名、机构名称、作品名称作主语时,谓语动词用单数。
   例如 : The Thirty-nine Steps is an interesting film. 《三十九级台阶》是个有趣的电影。
The United States, The United Nations, The Philippines, The Netherlands …
3. 由 one, every, everyone, everybody, each, one of, many a, either, neither,
no one, nobody, anybody, somebody, nothing, anything, everything, something 等作主语或修饰主语时,谓语动词用单数。
   例如:
Many a student is interested in football. 很多学生对足球感兴趣。
4. 表示时间、距离、金钱、体积、数字等词语作主语表示总量时,谓语动词用单数。
   例如:
Ten years is a long time. 十年是一段很长的时间。
Two thirds of the area is under water. 该地区三分之二被水覆盖。
More than one person is going to lose his job. 不只一个人将丢掉工作。(表示整体概念)
5.a portion of (一部分) , a series of (一系列) , a kind of (一种)等概念的词组用来修饰主语时,谓语动词用单数。
B. 谓语动词用复数的情况
1.both, few, many, several 等词语作主语或修饰主语时,谓语动词用复数。
A few
   例如:
Both of them have gone to Shanghai on business.
Several students were late for school yesterday.
   但 some 则不一定。例如: some of the money
   因为 some 可指可数 / 不可数,使用时应加注意。
2. 形容词前加定冠词用于泛指一类时,谓语动词用复数。
the + 形容词
   例如:
In many western films, the good are well rewarded and the bad are punished.
   在很多西方电影中,好人有好报,恶人有恶报。
3.cattle (牛、牲口), people (人民), police (警察), clothes (衣服)等名词作主语时,谓语动词用复数。
   例如:
The police are searching for the murderer. 警察正在搜捕凶手。
4. 由 and 连接两个主语时,谓语动词一般用复数。但是若是成对出现,可以作为整体看待。
   例如:
Jane and Mary look like. 珍妮和玛丽很相像。
Bread and milk is my breakfast.
C. 其他情况
1. 集体名词主语表示一个整体概念时,谓语动词用单数;若强调整体中具体的人、事物时谓语动词则用复数。常见的有: family, class, group, team 等。
   例如: My class is a big one.
The class are listening and reading.
2.a number of + 名词复数 + 谓语复数
the number of + 名词复数 + 谓语单数
   例如:
A number of foreign friends love Chinese food. 很多外国朋友都喜欢中国菜肴。
A number of students were late for school. 很多学生迟到了。
The number of students is increasing. 学生的数量正在增加。(谓语单数)
The number of errors was surprising. 错误的数量惊人。(谓语单数)
3.as well as, together with 等连接两个主语时,谓语应与第一个词一致。
[ 典型题解 ]
[ 例 1]
The United Nations _____ formed in 1945.
A.is 。B.was 。C.are 。D.were
[ 解析 ] 联合国是机构名称,作主语时,谓语用单数。本题有一个明确的时间状语,故选 B 。
[ 答案 ] B
[ 例 2]
He as well as I ______ very thoughtful.
A.are 。B.an 。C.is 。D.will be
[ 解析 ] 本题考查主谓一致的问题。 As well as 连接两个主语时,谓语应与第一个词一致。
[ 答案 ] C
   构词法
   英语词汇的构成有一定的规律,这种规律被称为构词法。掌握构词法的一般常识能够有助于更好的理解词义、认识新词、扩大词汇量。
   构词方法主要有三种:派生法、合成法、转换法。
   一、派生法
   某一个词的词根的前面或后面加上某个词缀后,会产生新词,这种构词法被称为派生法。加在前面的词缀叫前缀,加在后面的词缀叫后缀。英语中,后缀较前缀数量要多。
prefix –root –suffix
1. 常用的后缀
   许多名词、形容词、副词都是由词根加后缀构成的。
1 )构成名词的后缀常有:
① -er, -or, -ist, -ee, -ian, -ese, -ant 等,用于构成表示人或物的名称。
   例如: thinker (思想家), translator (翻译者), employee (雇员), physician (内科医生)。
scientist
musician
Chinese
assistant
② -ance, -ence, - ( a ) tion, -dion, -ics, -ing, -ity, -ment, -ness, -th, -ty, -ure, -ship 等,用于构成表示
行为、性质、状态等抽象名词。
   例如: acceptance (接受), dependence (依靠), repetition (重复), building (建筑物), reality (现实) , greatness (伟大), warmth (温暖), failure (失败)
discussion
physics
argument
safety
leadership
2 )构成形容词的后缀常有: -able, -ible, -al, -ful, -less, -lsh, -ive, -ous, -an, -ic, -ly, -y, -ant, -ent, -ary, -en 等。例如: suitable (合适的), natural (自然的), fearless (无畏的), childish (幼稚的), dependent (依赖的), consistent (一贯的), secondary (次要的), golden (金色的)。
responsible
powerful
-less fear 加后缀变为 fearless
effective
famous
American
scientific
-ly
friendly
noise noisy
Significant
widen
3 )构成副词的后缀常有: -ly, -ward, -wise 等。
   例如: terribly (可怕地), homeward (向家的) , otherwise (否则)。
eastward
4 )构成动词的后缀常有: -se ( -ize ) , -en, -fy 等。例如  realize (实现) , modernize (现代化), widen (加宽), modify (修饰)。
realize
realise
2. 常用的前缀
词根加前缀可构成新词,词义会产生变化,一般原词词性不发生改变。
1 )表示意义相反的前缀有: un- , dis- , in- , im- , ir- , il , de- 等。例如: unhappy (不高兴), unload (卸货), uncover (揭露), informal (非正式的), devalue (降低价值)。
dislike
disagree
independent 独立的
im- , ir- , il
m .b .p
2 )表示其他意思的前缀有: re- , mis- , anti- , ex- , pre- , post- , fore- , self- , supper- , sub- , inter- , trans- , ultra- , semi- , vice- , uni- , bi- , multi- , auto- 等。例如: reform (改革), preheat (预热), foresee (预见), self-control (自控), intercommunication (交际), ultrasonic (超声的), semi-final (半决赛), vice-premier (副总理), bimonthly (双月刊的), multinational (多国的), automobile (汽车)。
tri-
   二、合成法
   由两个或两个以上的词合成一个新词的方法被称为合成法。合成词或最新合成的词中间一般需要用连字符连接。但使用已久的、公认的合成词中间无需使用连字符连接。
· 合成名词
   例如: hardware (硬件), network (网络), byproduct (副产品), spaceship (航天飞船),
boyfriend (男友) ,mother-in-law (岳母) ,table-cloth (台布) ,sleeping-bag (睡袋)。
software
by-product
girlfriend
weekend
well-being
· 合成形容词
   例如: duty-free (免税的), far-reaching (深远的), first-rate (一流的),
face-to-face (面对面的), state-owned (国有的)。
· 合成动词
   例如: undergo (经历), heat-treat (热加工), counteroffer (还价)。
overthrow 推翻
   三、转换法
   在词形不变的情况下,一个单词会由一种词性转换为另一种词性,这种变化被称为转换。
   转换后词的词义与转换前词的词义通常有密切关联,但有时词性会出现较大变异。
water, chair
   例如:
dream 做梦(动词) → 梦(名词)
look 看(动词) → 相貌(名词)
back 后背(名词) → 支持(动词)
air 空气(名词) → 通风(动词)
better 较好(形容词) → 改善(动词)
   有些双音节词转换后,重音发生变化。通常,双音节词为名词时,其重音在前,而为动词时,其重音往往后移,但会有例外。
   例如:
   名词 动词
conduct [5kCndEkt] 行为 [k[n5dQkt] 传导
increase [5inkris] 增加 [in5kri:s] 增加
supply [s[5plai] 物资 [s[5plai] 供给
record [5rek[d ] 记录 [ri 5kR: d] 录音
   附表
常用前缀表
前缀       意义
例词
anti- 反对 antiwar (反战的)
co- 共同 coincidence (共同发生;巧合)
dis- 表示否定 dislike (不喜欢) disadvantage (不利条件)
en- 使处于、赋予 enable (使能够) endanger (危害)
il- 表示否定 ,在字母 l 前,illegal (非法的) illogical (不合逻辑的)
im- 在字母 m , b 和 p 前, immovable (不可移动的) imbalance (不均衡) ,impractical (不切实际的) impossible (不可能的)
in- incomplete (不完整的) inexact (不精确的)
ir- 在字母 r 前 ,irregular (不规则的) irresponsible (不负责任的)
inter- 互相、在 -···· 之间,interact (互相作用) international (国际的)
mis- 错误地 misguide (使误入歧途) misunderstand (误解)
non- 表示否定 nonviolent (非暴力的) non-verbal (非词语的)
over- 过度、超过 overpopulate (使人口过密) overweight (超重)
re- 再 reexamine (复试) remarry (再婚)
回 recall (回想) restore (使恢复;回复)
semi- 半 semifinal (半决赛的) semiweekly (一周两次的)
sub- 亚 subtitle (副标题) subeditor (副主编)
低于 subconsciously (下意识地) subsoil (下层土)
super- 上、超 superman (超人) supermarket (超级市场)
un- 表示否定 unacceptable (不能接受的) unload (从 … 卸下货物)
under- 下、低于 undermine (在 … 下挖) underground (地下的)
   常用后缀表
后缀
意义
例词   名           词
-age 动作、状态等 Marriage (结婚) percentage (百分比)
-ance ( y ) 、-ence ( y ), 行为、性质、状态、程度等 ,Insurance (保险) convenience (方便) 、Emergency (紧急情况) proficiency (熟练)
-ation 行为、状态 Limitation (限制) transportation (运输)
-er,-or 行为者或工具 Reporter (记者) sailor (水手) 
-hood 性质、状态 Likelihood (可能性) neighborhood (邻里)
-ion, -tion,
-son 行为、状态
Impression (印象) possession (拥有)
Instruction (指导) comparison (比较)
-ism 主义、制度等
Socialism (社会主义) tourism (观光)
-ist … 者、 … 家 Psychologist (心理学家) biologist (生物学家)
-ment 行为、状态 Management (经营) statement (声明)
-ness 构成抽象名词 Loneliness (孤独) kindness (仁慈)
-ship 状态、关系 Relationship (关系) friendship (友谊)
-ty, -ity 构成抽象名词 Variety (多样化) necessity (必要性)
形容词
-able,-ible 可 … 的;值得 … 的 Remarkable (值得注意的) digestible (可消化的)
-al 有 … 特性的 Industrial (工业的) personal (个人的)
-ful 充满 … 的 Successful (成功的) colorful (多彩的)
-ish 有点 … 的 Foolish (愚蠢的) childish (孩子气的)
-ive 富于 … 的 Imaginative (富于想象的) imitative (模仿的)
-less 无 … 的 Lifeless (无生命的) motionless (不动的)
-ous 有 … 性质的 Nervous (神经系统的) religious (宗教的)
-some 令人 … 的 Troublesome (令人烦恼的) tiresome (无聊的)
-y 有 … 的 Guilty (有罪的) salty (含盐的)
  动词
-en 使变得 … Heighten (提高) sharpen (削尖)
-fy, -ify 使成为;使产生 Beautify (美化) signify (表示)
-ize, -ise 使成为;(使) … 化 Memorize (熟记) industrialize (工业化)
副词
-ly Scarcely (几乎不) secondly (其次)
-ward ( s ) 方向、方位 Eastward (向东) downward (向下)
-wise 方向、方法 Likewise (以同样方式) clockwise (按顺时方向)
 
 
 

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